QUEM DISSE QUE CHIKUNDA NÃO ERA LÍNGUA?
Estudo (socio-)linguístico preliminar de uma língua Bantu transfronteiriça minoritária
Palavras-chave:
Chikunda, língua bantu, linguística histórica, linguística descritiva, sociolinguística
Resumo
O Chikunda é uma língua bantu classificada N42 por Guthrie (1971), e falada na junção de três países de África austral: Moçambique (Zumbo), Zâmbia (Luangwa) e Zimbabwe (Kanyemba), assim como no sul de Malawi nos distritos de Mwanza e Chikwawa. O grupo socio-cultural chikunda mereceu muita atenção dos historiadores devido à sua função como soldados escravizados durante o sistema de “prazos” na era colonial de Moçambique. A partir de uma identidade social comum, surgiu uma identidade étnica que envolveu a criação de um idioma, o Chikunda, resultante da mistura de dialetos e idiomas intra-bantu. A história incomum dos Chikunda levanta questões fascinantes do ponto de vista linguístico, com possíveis repercussões importantes para a narrativa histórica dessa comunidade. O presente artigo apresenta os resultados preliminares do projeto OriKunda: On the origins of Chikunda, “a language without a land” (Abril 2023-Março 2027, ANR-22-CE54-0009, França), liderado por Rozenn Guérois (LLACAN, CNRS França), cujo objetivo é revisar a história singular do grupo socio-cultural e da língua chikunda, desde sua gênese até aos dias atuais, por meio da linguística histórica, da linguística antropológica e da sociolinguística. Com base em pesquisas recentes de trabalho de campo, o presente artigo descreve elementos sociolinguísticos e linguísticos preliminares do Chikunda.
Referências
ABOH, E.O. The emergence of hybrid grammars: Language contact and change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
ALIKULETI, A. The extent of Chikunda influence and their social organisation in the Luangwa, Zambezi and Shire valleys. Chipata: Kolbe Press, 2021.
Bantu lexical reconstructions 3 / Reconstructions lexicales bantoues 3, 2002. [em linha]. Disponível em: http://linguistics.africamuseum.be/BLR3.html
BOSTOEN, K. Des mots et des pots en bantou: une approche linguistique de l’histoire de la céramique en Afrique. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Schriften zur Afrikanistik / Research in African Studies, 9, 2005.
BROWN, P. LEVINSON, S.C. Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
CAHEN, M. Compte-rendu « Le Mozambique dans l’histoire, À propos de Malyn Newitt, A Short History of Mozambique ». Lusotopie. v. 17, p. 159–167, 2018.
CHAMBERS, J., TRUDGILL, P. e SCHILLING-ESTES, Natalie (orgs.). The handbook of language variation and change. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002.
DOKE, C.M. A comparative study in Shona phonetics. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand Press, 1931.
EHRET, C. Cattle-keeping and milking in eastern and Southern African history: the linguistic evidence. Journal of African History. v. 8, p. 1–17, 1967.
GRÉGOIRE, C. Les locatifs en bantou. Tervuren: Royal Museum for Central Africa, 1975.
GROLLEMUND, R. et al. Bantu expansion shows that habitat alters the route and pace of human dispersals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. v. 112, n. 43, p. 13296–13301, 2015.
GUÉROIS, R., GIBSON, H. e PERSON, B. Associated motion in Bantu languages. In: Associated motion. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. p. 569–610, 2021.
GUILLAUME, A. e KOCH, H. (orgs.). Associated motion. Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter. Empirical Approaches to Language Typology (EALT), 64, 2021.
GÜLDEMANN, T. The genesis of verbal negation in Bantu and its dependency on functional features of clause types. In: Bantu historical linguistics: Theoretical and empirical perspectives. Stanford: CSLI. p. 545–587, 1999.
GUTHRIE, M. Comparative Bantu: An introduction to the comparative linguistics and prehistory of the Bantu languages. London: Gregg International, 1971.
HALE, M. Historical linguistics: theory and method. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007.
HAMMARSTRÖM, H. An inventory of Bantu languages. In: The Bantu Languages 2. London: Routledge. p. 17–78. Routledge Language Family Series, 2019.
HEINE, B. The dispersal of the Bantu peoples in the light of linguistic evidence. Muntu, v. 1, n. 2, p. 21–35, 1984.
HELMBRECHT, J. Politeness distinctions in second person pronouns. In: Deictic conceptualization of space, time and person. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. p. 185–202, 2003.
ISAACMAN, A. The origin, formation and early history of the Chikunda of South-Central Africa. The Journal of African History. v. 13, n. 3, p. 443–461, 1972.
ISAACMAN, A. e ISAACMAN, B. Slavery and beyond: The making of men and Chikunda identities in the unstable world of South-Central Africa, 1750-1920. Portsmouth N.H.: Heinemann, 2004.
ISAACMAN, A. e PETERSON, D. Making the Chikunda: military slavery and ethnicity in Southern Africa, 1750-1900. The International Journal of African Historical Studies. v. 36, n. 2, p. 257–281, 2003.
KISO, A. Tense and aspect in Chichewa, Citumbuka, and Cisena. Ph.D. Thesis. Stockholm: Stockholm University, 2012.
KOILE, E. et al. Phylogeographic analysis of the Bantu language expansion supports a rainforest route. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. v. 119, n. 32, p. e2112853119, 2022.
LABOV, W. Principles of linguistic change: Internal factors. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 1994.
LABOV, W. Principles of linguistic change: Social factors. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2001.
LABOV, W. Principles of linguistic change: Cognitive and cultural factors. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
LASS, R. Historical linguistics and language change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
LAWS, R. English-Tshigunda vocabulary. Livingstonia Mission, 1880.
MAHO, J.F. A comparative study of Bantu noun classes. Göteborg: Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis, 1999.
MAHO, J.F. NUGL online: The online version of the new updated Guthrie list, a referential classification of the Bantu languages, 2009. Acesso em 10 agosto 2020. Disponível em: https://brill.com/fileasset/downloads_products/35125_Bantu-New-updated-Guthrie-List.pdf
MALKIEL, Y. Etymology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
MARTEN, L. e KULA, N. Expressing politeness and respect in Bantu Languages: A short comparative survey. In: African Languages: Linguistic, Literary and Social Issues; A festschrift in honour of Prof. Herman Batibo. Cape Town: CASAS, 2021.
MEEUSSEN, A.E. Bantu grammatical reconstructions. Africana Linguistica. v. 3, p. 79–121, 1967.
MÖHLIG, W.J.G., ROTTLAND, F. e HEINE, B. (orgs.). Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1977.
MUFWENE, S. The ecology of language evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
MUFWENE, S. Language evolution: Contact, competition and change. London: Continuum, 2008.
MUFWENE, S. Pidgin and creole languages. In: International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences. Oxford: Elsevier. p. 133–145, 2015.
NEWITT, M. Portuguese settlement on the Zambezi. New York: Africana Publishing Company, 1973.
NEWITT, M. A History of Mozambique. London: Hurst, 1994.
NEWITT, M. Compte-rendu “Michel Cahen’s Review of A Short History of Mozambique: Some Thoughts”. Lusotopie. vol. 17, p. 168–185, 2018.
ODDEN, D. Kimatuumbi phrasal phonology. Phonology. v. 4, p. 13–36, 1987.
ODDEN, D. Predictable tone systems in Bantu. In: Autosegmental studies on pitch accent. Dordrecht: Foris. p. 225–251, 1988.
PATRIARCA, M., HEINSALU, E. e LÉONARD, J.L. (orgs.). Languages in space and time: Models and methods from complex systems theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020.
PHILIPPSON, G. Gens des bananeraies: contribution linguistique à l’histoire culturelle des Chaga du Kilimanjaro. Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 1984.
PHILIPPSON, G. e BAHUCHET, S. Cultivated crops and Bantu migrations in Central and Eastern Africa: A linguistic approach. Azania. v. 29/30, p. 103–120, 1996.
RICQUIER, B. e BOSTOEN, K. Retrieving food history through linguistics: Culinary traditions in early bantuphone communities. In: Food and language: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on food and cooking 2009. Oxford Symposium. p. 258–269, 2010.
SCHOENBRUN, D.L. A green place, a good place: agrarian change, gender and social identity in the great lakes region to the 15th century. Nairobi: EAEP, 1998.
SHOSTED, R. Just put your lips together and blow? whistled fricatives of Southern Bantu. In: Proceedings of ISSP 2006: 7th International Seminar on speech production. Belo Horizonte: CEFALA. p. 565–572, 2006.
SHOSTED, R. Articulatory and acoustic characteristics of whistled fricatives in Changana. In: Selected proceedings the 40th Annual Conference on African Linguistics. Somerville MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project. p. 119–129, 2011.
SIMONIN, J. e WARTHON, S. (orgs.). Sociolinguistique du contact. Dictionnaire des termes et concepts. Lyon: ENS Lyon, 2013.
THIEBERGER, N. Steps toward a grammar embedded in data. In: New challenges in typology: Transcending the borders and refining the distinctions. Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter. p. 389–408, 2009.
TURK, A. e SHATTUCK-HUFNAGEL, S. Speech timing: Implications for theories of phonology, phonetics, and speech motor control. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020.
VANSINA, J. Paths in the rainforests. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990.
WEISS, M. The comparative method. In: The Routledge handbook of historical linguistics. London: Routledge. p. 127–146, 2014.
ZEMBA, M. A grammatical sketch of Kunda language. Master Dissertation. The University of Zambia, 2015.
ALIKULETI, A. The extent of Chikunda influence and their social organisation in the Luangwa, Zambezi and Shire valleys. Chipata: Kolbe Press, 2021.
Bantu lexical reconstructions 3 / Reconstructions lexicales bantoues 3, 2002. [em linha]. Disponível em: http://linguistics.africamuseum.be/BLR3.html
BOSTOEN, K. Des mots et des pots en bantou: une approche linguistique de l’histoire de la céramique en Afrique. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Schriften zur Afrikanistik / Research in African Studies, 9, 2005.
BROWN, P. LEVINSON, S.C. Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
CAHEN, M. Compte-rendu « Le Mozambique dans l’histoire, À propos de Malyn Newitt, A Short History of Mozambique ». Lusotopie. v. 17, p. 159–167, 2018.
CHAMBERS, J., TRUDGILL, P. e SCHILLING-ESTES, Natalie (orgs.). The handbook of language variation and change. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002.
DOKE, C.M. A comparative study in Shona phonetics. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand Press, 1931.
EHRET, C. Cattle-keeping and milking in eastern and Southern African history: the linguistic evidence. Journal of African History. v. 8, p. 1–17, 1967.
GRÉGOIRE, C. Les locatifs en bantou. Tervuren: Royal Museum for Central Africa, 1975.
GROLLEMUND, R. et al. Bantu expansion shows that habitat alters the route and pace of human dispersals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. v. 112, n. 43, p. 13296–13301, 2015.
GUÉROIS, R., GIBSON, H. e PERSON, B. Associated motion in Bantu languages. In: Associated motion. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. p. 569–610, 2021.
GUILLAUME, A. e KOCH, H. (orgs.). Associated motion. Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter. Empirical Approaches to Language Typology (EALT), 64, 2021.
GÜLDEMANN, T. The genesis of verbal negation in Bantu and its dependency on functional features of clause types. In: Bantu historical linguistics: Theoretical and empirical perspectives. Stanford: CSLI. p. 545–587, 1999.
GUTHRIE, M. Comparative Bantu: An introduction to the comparative linguistics and prehistory of the Bantu languages. London: Gregg International, 1971.
HALE, M. Historical linguistics: theory and method. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007.
HAMMARSTRÖM, H. An inventory of Bantu languages. In: The Bantu Languages 2. London: Routledge. p. 17–78. Routledge Language Family Series, 2019.
HEINE, B. The dispersal of the Bantu peoples in the light of linguistic evidence. Muntu, v. 1, n. 2, p. 21–35, 1984.
HELMBRECHT, J. Politeness distinctions in second person pronouns. In: Deictic conceptualization of space, time and person. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. p. 185–202, 2003.
ISAACMAN, A. The origin, formation and early history of the Chikunda of South-Central Africa. The Journal of African History. v. 13, n. 3, p. 443–461, 1972.
ISAACMAN, A. e ISAACMAN, B. Slavery and beyond: The making of men and Chikunda identities in the unstable world of South-Central Africa, 1750-1920. Portsmouth N.H.: Heinemann, 2004.
ISAACMAN, A. e PETERSON, D. Making the Chikunda: military slavery and ethnicity in Southern Africa, 1750-1900. The International Journal of African Historical Studies. v. 36, n. 2, p. 257–281, 2003.
KISO, A. Tense and aspect in Chichewa, Citumbuka, and Cisena. Ph.D. Thesis. Stockholm: Stockholm University, 2012.
KOILE, E. et al. Phylogeographic analysis of the Bantu language expansion supports a rainforest route. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. v. 119, n. 32, p. e2112853119, 2022.
LABOV, W. Principles of linguistic change: Internal factors. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 1994.
LABOV, W. Principles of linguistic change: Social factors. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2001.
LABOV, W. Principles of linguistic change: Cognitive and cultural factors. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
LASS, R. Historical linguistics and language change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
LAWS, R. English-Tshigunda vocabulary. Livingstonia Mission, 1880.
MAHO, J.F. A comparative study of Bantu noun classes. Göteborg: Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis, 1999.
MAHO, J.F. NUGL online: The online version of the new updated Guthrie list, a referential classification of the Bantu languages, 2009. Acesso em 10 agosto 2020. Disponível em: https://brill.com/fileasset/downloads_products/35125_Bantu-New-updated-Guthrie-List.pdf
MALKIEL, Y. Etymology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
MARTEN, L. e KULA, N. Expressing politeness and respect in Bantu Languages: A short comparative survey. In: African Languages: Linguistic, Literary and Social Issues; A festschrift in honour of Prof. Herman Batibo. Cape Town: CASAS, 2021.
MEEUSSEN, A.E. Bantu grammatical reconstructions. Africana Linguistica. v. 3, p. 79–121, 1967.
MÖHLIG, W.J.G., ROTTLAND, F. e HEINE, B. (orgs.). Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1977.
MUFWENE, S. The ecology of language evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
MUFWENE, S. Language evolution: Contact, competition and change. London: Continuum, 2008.
MUFWENE, S. Pidgin and creole languages. In: International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences. Oxford: Elsevier. p. 133–145, 2015.
NEWITT, M. Portuguese settlement on the Zambezi. New York: Africana Publishing Company, 1973.
NEWITT, M. A History of Mozambique. London: Hurst, 1994.
NEWITT, M. Compte-rendu “Michel Cahen’s Review of A Short History of Mozambique: Some Thoughts”. Lusotopie. vol. 17, p. 168–185, 2018.
ODDEN, D. Kimatuumbi phrasal phonology. Phonology. v. 4, p. 13–36, 1987.
ODDEN, D. Predictable tone systems in Bantu. In: Autosegmental studies on pitch accent. Dordrecht: Foris. p. 225–251, 1988.
PATRIARCA, M., HEINSALU, E. e LÉONARD, J.L. (orgs.). Languages in space and time: Models and methods from complex systems theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020.
PHILIPPSON, G. Gens des bananeraies: contribution linguistique à l’histoire culturelle des Chaga du Kilimanjaro. Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 1984.
PHILIPPSON, G. e BAHUCHET, S. Cultivated crops and Bantu migrations in Central and Eastern Africa: A linguistic approach. Azania. v. 29/30, p. 103–120, 1996.
RICQUIER, B. e BOSTOEN, K. Retrieving food history through linguistics: Culinary traditions in early bantuphone communities. In: Food and language: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on food and cooking 2009. Oxford Symposium. p. 258–269, 2010.
SCHOENBRUN, D.L. A green place, a good place: agrarian change, gender and social identity in the great lakes region to the 15th century. Nairobi: EAEP, 1998.
SHOSTED, R. Just put your lips together and blow? whistled fricatives of Southern Bantu. In: Proceedings of ISSP 2006: 7th International Seminar on speech production. Belo Horizonte: CEFALA. p. 565–572, 2006.
SHOSTED, R. Articulatory and acoustic characteristics of whistled fricatives in Changana. In: Selected proceedings the 40th Annual Conference on African Linguistics. Somerville MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project. p. 119–129, 2011.
SIMONIN, J. e WARTHON, S. (orgs.). Sociolinguistique du contact. Dictionnaire des termes et concepts. Lyon: ENS Lyon, 2013.
THIEBERGER, N. Steps toward a grammar embedded in data. In: New challenges in typology: Transcending the borders and refining the distinctions. Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter. p. 389–408, 2009.
TURK, A. e SHATTUCK-HUFNAGEL, S. Speech timing: Implications for theories of phonology, phonetics, and speech motor control. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020.
VANSINA, J. Paths in the rainforests. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990.
WEISS, M. The comparative method. In: The Routledge handbook of historical linguistics. London: Routledge. p. 127–146, 2014.
ZEMBA, M. A grammatical sketch of Kunda language. Master Dissertation. The University of Zambia, 2015.
Publicado
2025-08-08
